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Introduction

Rypervenche's language resources and notes.

Arabic

How to create the 10 forms

The letter after the number indicates which teshkeel to put on the second and first root letter in the present tense.

1 F: Normal 2 KD: Shadda on middle 3 KD: Alif after first 4 KD: Alif before first, sukuun on first 5 FF: Add ت to form 2 6 FF: Add ت to form 3 7 KF: Add إن to form 1 8 KF: Add إ to form 1*, sukuun on first, ت after first 9 FF: Add إ to form 1*, sukuun on first, shadda on last 10 KF: Add إست to form 1*, sukuun on first

  • = with second root letter with a fatha

**NOTE on present tense: Hollow verbs: Middle vowel always an ا, except for 1 (varies) and 4 and 10 (ي) Defective verbs: Final vowel always a ي, except for 1 (varies) and 5 and 6 (the ت forms) (ا)

The meanings of the 10 forms

1: General verb meaning 2: Causative of 1 Intensive of 1 3: Associative of 1 (describes someone doing the act in question to or with someone else) 4: Causative of 1 5: Reflexive of 2 6: Reflexive of 3 7: Reflexive and/or passive of 1 8: Reflexive of 1 Special meaning relative to 1 (sometimes) 9: Relates to colors 10: Considerative of 1 (to consider or deem someone to have the quality) Requestive of 1 (to request or seek something for oneself)

Arabic names of tenses

Past: الماضي

Passive

Past: Damma on first letter/suffixeS!!, kasra on second Alif in III and VI change to waw Hollow alif change to ye Defective ending alif maqsoura change to ye with fatha Present: Damma on first letter/suffix, fatha on the rest (save for last damma) Hollow vowel changes to alif Defective ending changes to alif maqsoura

Subjunctive (add fatha): Save as present BUT

Replace damma with fatha in 5 endings (I, you, he, she, we) Remove "na/ni" from "uuna", "iina", and "aani" endings

Jussive (remove vowel): Same as present BUT

Remove damma from 5 endings (I, you, he, she, we) Remove "na/ni" from "uuna", "iina", and "aani" endings (If verb ends in dagger alif and you need to remove the ending, remove the entire ى) For hollow verbs: (For 5 endings, drop the middle vowel) For defectve verbs: (For 5 endings, drop the final vowel)

Verbs: *=rare

Present: Positive: Negative: لا + present

*Present perfect: Just | Not yet Positive: past + تَوًّا or + لِتَوَّ + pronoun object Negative: لَمَّا + jussive

Past: Positive: Negative: لَم + jussive مَا + past (extra emphasis)

Past continuous: Positive: كَانَ + noun + present Negative: لَمْ + conjugated يَكُونُ مَا + past of كَانَ (extra emphasis)

Habitual past: Positive: present of كَانَ Negative: لَمْ + conjugated يَكُونُ مَا + past of كَانَ (extra emphasis)

Future: Positive: سَ + present (attached) (near future) سَوْفَ + present (distant future) Negative: لَنْ + subjunctive

Future perfect: Will have | Will not have Positive: Future particle + present يَكُونُ + قِدْ + past of verb Negative: لَنْ + subjunctive + قَد + past of verb

Imperative: Positive: Use present tense as a base. Drop prefix (تَـ does not count as prefix for 5+6) 1(sound): Add اِ for fatha and kasra middle vowel, أُ for damma 4: Add أَ to beginning 7-10: Add اِ to beginning Use jussive endings for all 5 "you" forms.

  Hamzated: Drop hamza as well as prefix
  Geminated: Normal separation on "-na" form. 2ps has the choice of separation or fatha on the end, e.g., عَدَّ
Negative Imperative: لا + jussive

Nominal sentences

Present: Positive: noun/pronoun + noun/adjective Negative: conjugated لَيْسَ + (noun, in nominative case) + noun/adjective (in accusative case)

Past: Positive: conjugated كَانَ + (noun, in nominative case) + noun/adjective (in accusative case) Negative: لَمْ + conjugated يَكُونُ + (noun, in nominative case) + noun/adjective (in accusative case) مَا + past of كَانَ + (noun, in nominative case) + noun/adjective (in accusative case)

Future: Positive: Future of كَانَ + (noun, in nominative case) + noun/adjective (in accusative case) Negative: Negative of future كَانَ + (noun, in nominative case) + noun/adjective (in accusative case)

Active participle: 1: فَاعِل E.g., ﻙَﺎﻨِﺑ

               2-10: مُ + present tense, first root is sukuuned, middle vowel is kasra

Passive participle: 1: مَفْعُول E.g., مَكْتُوب 2-10: مُ + present tense, first root is sukuuned, middle vowel is fatha Place/time: 1: مَفْعَل, مَفْعِل, مَفْعَلَة 2-10: Same as Passive participle Instrument/tool: مِفْعَال، مِفْعَل، مِفْعَلَة، newer words usually use فَعَّالَة

Masdar

1: A few different forms: a: fa3l, fu3uul, fa3al, fa3aal, fi3aalah i: fa3al, fa3l u: fa3aalah, fa3l, fu3uulah

2-10: All forms use infinitive as base. All forms starting with ا add fatha and alif to 2nd root letter (or first separated shadda'ed 3rd letter for 9).

2: te-sukuun in front, remove shaddas, add kasra and ye after 2nd root letter (defectives: Add fatha + ة to the end (to keep "a" sound)) NOTE: Same as feminine form of passive participle 3: mu + past + ة 4: Change vowel on أ to kasra (إ) 5: Same as past, but change 2nd fatha to damma 6: Same as past, but change 2nd fatha to damma 7-10 get kasra on the first and second non-sukuun letters

Hollow: For all forms get a ة at the end Assimilated: Change first و to ي Geminated: Separate doubled letters Defective: Add ء to end Ending in ء: Add ة to end

Inna and In

#(Followed by attached pronoun or noun in accusative case) Inna = Indeed Inna = that (for قال) Anna = that (for all others) #(Followed directly by verb in subjunctive case) In = that/to (followed directly by verb)

Kull(ou) (every, each, all)

Each: Singular + un Entire/all: Singular + el + u Every: Plural + el + u

Numbers

Cardinal

Universals:

  • 1-2: Everything agrees (adjectives)
  • ?3-?9+10: Reverse gender
  • Idaafa (except where specified)

Rules:

  • 3-10: Plural noun
  • 11-19: All accusative
  • 20-99: ones (acc.) + و + tens
  • 100+: 3digit + و + 2digit

Ordinal

Universals:

  • Agree on everything (adjectives)

Rules:

  • 11-19: Numbers are all accusative (not noun)
  • 11-19: 3ashara does not get el- on it

#OLD RULES================= #Cardinal All combinations (without و) are Idaafaat. (All nouns have nunation, the numbers don't, unless not part of an Idaafah)

1-2: Same gender. (1 and 2 alone are adjectives, not Idaafah) 3-10: Opposite gender. (Plural nouns when no other numbers) 11-99: Nouns and numbers in accusative. Singular noun. 10s same gender ("oona" (n), "iina" (a/g)) 12: 2 becomes ithnaa (n), ithnei (a/g), ithnataa (n +f), ithnatei (a/g +f) (normal dual stuff) 100: مِئَة or مائة (both mi'ah). Always singular, used in Idaafah. Numbers before it are masculine. 101, 102: mi'ah wa waahid(ah). mi'ah wa ithna(ta)ani. With a noun after it, don't use waahid or ithnaani, use the singular/dual noun instead. 103-999: wa after hundreds, and wa with normal single+tens digits, so can have two wa's. 200-900: Idaafah with mi'ah. Often written without space in between the words. 1000: أَلْف, like 100, but it's masc. so it gets feminine numbers before it. 1000000: مِلْيُون 1000000000: مِلْيَار

#Ordinal Adjectives that follow noun. Usually definite. Add ة to make feminine (except for 1st). Take sound plurals.

1st: الأَوَّلُ (m) or الأُولَى 2nd: الثَانِي (defective ending) 3-10: Follow active participle form فَاعِلُ (6 = السَادِسُ) 11-19: Both numbers accusative. First gets الـ, never second. Both numbers match noun in gender. 11th is الحَادِيَ عَشَرَ and الحَادِيَةَ عَشْرَةَ 20-99: Tens: same as cardinal, but add الـ. Don't decline for gender, but do for case. Ones: Add الـ . 1st is like 1 in 11th. Add و in between ones and tens. 100, 1000, etc. Same as cardinal, but add الـ. They don't change for gender. #==========================

Adverbs

Already: Previously. I've already eaten lunch. سَابِقًا Before. Have you already read this book? مِن قَبْلِ In fact, actually, en fait. She has already left the office. بِالفِعْلِ Then, in that case. وبالتالي or وفي هذه الحالة By the way. بِالْمُنَاسَبَةِ

Never (future, present): أَبَدًا Neter (past): قَطٌّ

To know

عَرَفَ = to know instinctively علم = to know from having learned فَهِمَ = to understand

Seeing

نَظَرَ look رَأى see شَاهَدَ watch بَصَرَ see (not common)

More/Most

The important things. الأشياء المهمة / الأشياء الهامة The more important things. الأشياء الأكثر أهمية The most important things. أهم الأشياء

يبدو مثل... تبدو مثل It looks like رائحته مثل... رائحتها مثل It smells like طعمه مثل...طعمها مثل It tastes like يبدو مثل It feels/sounds like أشعر مثل It feels like (you can only use it with human being)

Finnish Resources

Textbooks

All of these are also available in PDF format

Online Courses

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Grammar

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Reading Materials

Video Materials

TV Shows

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YKI

Fun

French resources

Youtube resources

Hungarian

C = consonant
V = vowel
VV = long vowel

Grammatical terms

  • ige - verb
  • főnév - noun
  • melléknév - adjective
  • határozószó - adverb

Positional suffixes

##Spaces

  • -ban/ben - in
  • -ba/be - into
  • -ból/ből - out of

##Surfaces

  • -(o/e/ö)n - on, at
  • -ra/re - onto
  • -ról/ről - off of

##Solids

  • -nál/nél - near
  • -hoz/hez/höz - toward
  • -tól/től - away from

To be

van (lenni)

vagyok
vagy
van

vagyunk
vagytok
vannak

Present tense

Indefinite

Notes:

  1. Stem ending in -ít or CC: Add linking V before suffix beginning in C
-ok -ek -ök
-sz (-ol -el -öl)
- (-ik)

-unk -ünk
-tok -tek -tök
-nak -nek

Definite

Notes:

  1. j assimilates with s, sz, z, and dz
-om -em -öm
-od -ed -öd
-ja -i

-juk -jük
-játok -itek
-ják -ik

Past tense

3 suffixes:

  1. -ott -ett -ött
  • Stem ends in CC
  • Stem ends in VV + t
  • fut, hat, jut, köt, nyit, süt, üt, vet (1 syllable ending in -t)
  1. -t
  • Stem ends in j, l, ly, n, ny, and r
  • Many 2-syllable stems ending in -ad and -ed
  1. -t, but -ott, -ett, -ött for 3rd person singular
  • All verbs not in groups 1 or 2

Indefinite

-am -em
-ál -él
- -

-unk -ünk
-atok -etek
-ak -ek

Definite

-am -em
-ad -ed
-a -e

-uk -ük
-átok -étek
-ák -ék

Imperative mood

Notes:

  1. Add -j to stem, then the following suffixes
  2. Long versions in ()
  3. Add légy szíves or legyen szíves to be more polite

Indefinite

-ak -ek*
- - (-ál -él)
-on -en -ön*

-unk -ünk
-atok -etek
-anak -enek*

Note: Only versions with * next to them are different from past indefinite

Definite (same as past)

-am -em
-d -d* (-ad -ed)
-a -e

-uk -ük
-átok -étek
-ák -ék

Assimilation

  1. After s, sz, z, the -j assimilates: ss, ssz, zz
  2. Short version: Remove j (or assimilated j) + V for Definite
  3. For verbs ending in -t a. -st, -szt: Drop the -t before assimilation (-st + j = -ss, -szt + j = ssz) b. C/VV + t: j becomes s (s not removed in short form) c. V + t: t+j = ss

Negation

  • nem becomes ne
  • sem becomes se

Possession

Notes:

  1. -j can't follow c, cs, gy, j, ly, ny, s, sz, ty, z, or zs
  2. Common C that take j: b, d, g, p, t, k

Singular

-m | -om -em -öm
-d | -od -ed -öd
-ja -je | -a -e -ja -je

-nk | -unk -ünk
-tok -tek -tök | -otok -etek -ötök
-juk -jük | -uk -ük -juk -jük

Note: Versions before | are when word ends in a vowel.

Plural

Notes:

  1. For word with C ending, first add -(j)a or -(j)e then suffix

    -im -id -i

    -ink -itok -itek -ik

Self words

magam
magad
maga

magunk
magatok
maguk

Icelandic Resources

Dictionaries

In order of usefulness

EN > IS

IS > EN

IS > IS

Pronunciation

Grammar

Courses

Taiwanese Mandarin resources

Zhuyin / Bopomofo

Pronunciation

Characters / Hanzi

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Websites

Podcasts

Shows

Variety shows

2分之一強

Foreigners who have learned Mandarin and live in Taiwan:

天才衝衝衝

Game show with a lot of different games:

康熙來了

An interview show

阿滴

He teaches Taiwanese people English and usually speaks in Mandarin

Anything with Jackie Wu

He has a lot of game shows and talk shows

Youtube

Taiwanese Gaming Youtubers

Travel

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Miscellaneous

Music

Taiwanese

Other

Miscellaneous

Fonts

TOCFL Vocabulary Lists

Offical Standards

Mexican Spanish

Youtubers

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By Fighter/Jimmy

Dicts

Literature/Intellectual Writing

Textbooks/Educational Books

  • 何信翰《看看板: 廣告招牌的台語大學問》
  • 胡美津《正港台語入門書》
  • 劉承賢《語言學家解破台語》
  • 郎頭《台語原來是這樣》
  • 粉紅色小屋《台語原來是這樣 2: 台南生活的台語日常》
  • Philip T Lin - Taiwanese Grammar: A Concise Reference
  • Seng-hian Lau - Superb Taiwanese Primer
  • 蘇致亨《毋甘願的電影史：曾經，臺灣有個好萊塢》

Podcasts

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FB Groups** (a lot of discussion and drama among natives passionate about Taiwanese happens in FB group

IG

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Book Stores

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Turkish

Grammar

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Some random sites

Turkish notes

Söz Türleri: (parts of speech (kinds of words))

Isim - Noun Zamir/Adıl - Pronoun Sıfat - Adjective Fiil - Verb Zarf - Adverb Ilgeç - Postposition Bağlaç - Conjunction Edat - Particle Ünlem - Interjection

Şimdiki Zaman - Present tense Belirli Geçmiş Zaman - Definite Past tense Belirsiz Geçmiş Zaman - Indefinite Past tense Gelecek Zaman - Future tense

Durum (case)

Yalın - Nominative Belirtme - Accusative Yönelme - Dative Bulunma - Locative Çıkma/Ayrılma - Ablative (from, of, because of, via, through, than) Tamlayan/İlgi - Genitive

Random

Tekil - Singular Çoğul - Plural

Consonant Alternation:

Ending consonant changes when adding a suffix that begins with a vowel p > b ç > c t > d k > ğ

  • Not all word undergo this change.
  • Proper nouns won't have this written, but it will be said

If ending consonant is one of the following 8 (voiceless consonants): p t k s ş ç f h

And is followed by one of the following 4 (voiced consonants): b c d g

Then it becomes (voiceless consonsants): p ç t k

To be:

-(y)im -sin -(dir) -(y)iz -siniz -(dir)(ler)

Possessive Pronouns (Genitive):

benim senin onun bizim sizin onların

Possessed (by pronoun):

-(i)m -(i)n -(s)i -(i)miz -(i)niz -leri

*Not used if using possessive suffixes in addition. E.g., El havlusu > El havlum (my hand towel) *Add buffer (n) and not (y) if adding a grammatical suffix to 3rd person: El havlusunu seniyor (she loves her hand towel)

Present Continuous:

Stem ending in vowel: Drop stem vowel

-iyorum -iyorsun -iyor -iyoruz -iyorsunuz -iyorlar

Negative:

Add -ma or -me to stem

Past

görülen geçmiş zaman

(d may change to t)

-dim -din -di -dik -diniz -diler

Heard Past

duyulan geçmiş zaman

-mişim -mişsin -miş -mişiz -mişsiniz -mişler

Future

-ecek or -acak

-(y)eceğim -(y)eceksin -(y)ecek -(y)eceğiz -(y)eceksiniz -(y)ecekler

Aorist/Present

Geniş Zaman

Stem ending in vowel: +r + ending Stem ending in consonant, polysyllabic: +ir + ending Stem ending in consonant, monosyllabic: +er + ending 13 exception verbs: +ir (see below)

-im -sin -ø -iz -siniz -(ler)

  • Exceptions: almak - to take bilmek - to know bulmak - to find durmak - to stop gelmek - to come görmek - to see kalmak - to stay olmak - to be/become ölmek - to die sanmak - to think (sanırım = I suppose, I think) varmak - to arrive vermek - to give vurmak - to hit

Negative Aorist/Present

Normal stem plus: -maz/-mez (-ma/-me for I/we) plus stem I:

-m -sin -ø -yiz -siniz -(ler)

Passive:

Stem ending in consonant (not l): -il Stem ending in vowel or l: -(i)n

Causative:

Stem ending in vowel or r: -t Stem ending in consonant (not r): -dir *Some stems ending in ç or ş: -ir *Some monosyllabic ending in -k: -it *Some stems take -k -ıt -ar -er. *Görmek is irregular: göstermek (to show)

Double causitive is possible: ölmek - to die öldürmek - to kill öldürtmek - to have someone killed

Ability

Can/Might Positive: Add to stem: -ebil/abil (from bilmek) Can't Negative: Add to stem: -(y)eme/(y)ama (-e + -me) Might Negative: Add to stem: -meyebil (-me + -ebil)

*You can have both together in the negative Gidemeyebilirim - I might not be able to go

Extra suffixes

Reflexive: -(i)n Reciprocal: -(i)ş (mutual action) Repetitive: -(i)ştir -ify, -ize: -lemek Become: -leşmek

Order of suffixes:

  1. Reflexive
  2. Reciprocal
  3. Causative
  4. Passive

-me + -ebil or -eme are added after these.

Verb ending types:

I: -(y)im -sin (-dir) -(y)iz -siniz -(dir)ler II: -m -n -ø -k -niz -ler III: -eyim -esin -e -elim -esiniz -eler

Present, Aorist, Future, Inferential past, Necessity: I Past, Conditional: II Subjunctive: III

Location words:

Üst - top Alt - bottom Ön - front Arka - back Yan - side Orta - middle

Indirect speech

"Onun partiye gidip gitmediğini bilmiyorum" I don't know whether he went to the party or not. "O partiye gitti mi bilmiyorum" I dont know if he went to the party.

"Seni sevip sevmediğimi bilmiyorum" I don't know if I love you or not. "Seni seviyor muyum bilmiyorum" I don't know if I love you.

As soon as

-r -mez gider gitmez = as soon as (I) go

"Ben oturur oturmaz telefon çaldı" As soon as I sat down, the telephone rang.

Imperatives

N/A -(y)in -sin N/A -(y)iniz (only very formal and on public signs) -sinler

Imperative (impatient form)

-sene (2nd singular) -seniza (2nd plural)

Subjunctive

-eyim -esin -e -elim -esiniz -eler

Should

Stem + meli + to be

Conditional

Stem + tense ending (usually aorist or present continuous) + (y)se + II

-(y)sem -(y)sen -(y)se -(y)sek -(y)seniz -(y)seler

Suffixes

-lık, -lik, -luk, -lük suffix

  1. Abstract noun (-ity, -ness)
  2. Collective noun (the old, childhood)
  3. Usage noun (place, tool, for ...)
  4. Turn numbers into nouns (that can be used like adjectives) #--- -(y)en So the -(y)en ending is for the "subject particle". It is kind of like a word ending in -ing in English. It can be a noun or an adjective. I think it would best translate as "(the person or thing) that is VERBing" Beklemek = to wait

(noun) Bekleyen = The person who is waiting | the thing that is waiting (adj.) Bekleyen adam = The man who is waiting OR The waiting man #---

demek ve yemek

Ünlü Daralması

Türkçede a, e ünlüleri ile biten fiillerin şimdiki zaman çekiminde, söyleyişte de yazımda da a ünlüsü ı, u; e ünlüsü i, ü olur: başlıyor (<başla-yor), oynuyor (<oyna-yor), doymuyor (<doyma-yor), izliyor (<izle-yor), diyor (<de-yor), gelmiyor (<gelme-yor), gözlüyor (<gözle-yor) vb.

Birden çok heceli ve a, e ünlüleri ile biten fiiller, ünlüyle başlayan ek aldıklarında bu fiillerdeki a, e ünlülerinde söyleyişte yaygın bir daralma (ı ve i’ye dönme) eğilimi görülür. Ancak söyleyişteki ı, i ünlüleri yazıya geçirilmez: başlayan, yaşayacak, atlayarak, saklayalı, atmayalım; gelmeyen, izlemeyecek, gitmeyerek, gizleyeli, besleyelim vb.

Buna karşılık tek heceli olan demek ve yemek fiillerinde, söyleyişteki i ünlüsü yazıya da geçirilir: diyen, diyerek, diyecek, diyelim, diye; yiyen, yi­yerek, yiyecek, yiyelim, yiye, yiyince, yiyip vb. Ancak deyince, deyip sözlerindeki e yazı­lışta korunur.

New method

Verb ending types:

I: -(y)im -sin (-dir) -(y)iz -siniz -(dir)ler ("to be" endings) II: -m -n -ø -k -niz -ler III: -(y)eyim -(y)esin -(y)e -(y)elim -(y)esiniz -(y)eler IV: X -ø -sin X -in/-iniz -sinler (X = does not exist)

Present Continuous, Aorist, Future, Inferential past, Necessity: I Past, Conditional: II Subjunctive: III Imperative: IV

Forms I

#Present continuous | Şimdiki Zaman Stem ending in vowel: Drop stem vowel -iyor (the o does not change for vowel harmony)

Aorist (Simple present) | Geniş Zaman

Stem ending in vowel: -r Stem ending in consonant, polysyllabic: -ir Stem ending in consonant, monosyllabic: -er 13 exception verbs: -ir (see below)

Future | Gelecek Zaman

-ecek

Inferential past | Belirsiz Geçmiş Zaman

-miş

Necessity | Gerelilik Kipi

(should/must)

-meli

Forms II

Definite Past | Belirli Geçmiş Zaman

-di

Conditional | Şart Kipi

-se (attach to the end of any other tense, or directly to stem)

Forms III

Subjunctive | İstek Kipi

(no suffix before endings)

Forms IV

Imperative | Emir Kipi

(no suffix before endings)

Aorist Exceptions:

  • almak - to take
  • bilmek - to know
  • bulmak - to find
  • durmak - to stop
  • gelmek - to come
  • görmek - to see
  • kalmak - to stay
  • olmak - to be/become
  • ölmek - to die
  • sanmak - to think (sanırım = I suppose, I think)
  • varmak - to arrive
  • vermek - to give
  • vurmak - to hit